Trends in glyphosate herbicide use in the United States and globally methods

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        "position": 1,
        "name": "U.S. data sources",
        "text": "In each year, NASS strives to collect data on states that collectively account for at least 85 % of the area planted nationally to a given crop. For some crops, 15 or more states are surveyed to reach this threshold, while in other crops only two states are required (e.g., lemons in 2011, two states; corn in 2010, 21 states). Accordingly, when NASS reports national estimates of total pesticide use on surveyed acres of a given crop, the data typically underestimate total national crop use by ~15 %, since national acres planted always exceeds NASS acres surveyed. This is why in several Additional file: Tables [ ] the pounds of herbicides applied are reported on both NASS-surveyed acres and total national acre. To estimate use on all planted hectares/acres, the average rate of application per crop year on NASS-surveyed acres is applied to the total planted area [ ]."
      },
      {
        "@type": "HowToStep",
        "position": 2,
        "name": "Global use of glyphosate",
        "text": "Glyphosate was, of course, not applied evenly on every hectare of cropland. The average rate of glyphosate applications per hectare per crop year during 2014 fell in the range of 1.5-2.0 kg/hectare [ ]. At these rates of application, the total volume of glyphosate applied in 2014 was sufficient to treat between 22 and 30 % of globally cultivated cropland. No pesticide in history has been sprayed so widely."
      },
      {
        "@type": "HowToStep",
        "position": 3,
        "name": "Relative toxicity and impacts",
        "text": "For years, glyphosate has been regarded as among the least chronically toxic herbicides for mammals, and indeed only three EPA-registered synthetic pesticides in current agricultural use have a higher chronic Reference Dose (the imidazolinone herbicides imazamox, imazethapyr, and imazapyr)."
      },
      {
        "@type": "HowToStep",
        "position": 4,
        "name": "Relative toxicity and impacts",
        "text": "For human exposures, the U.S. EPA has set glyphosate's daily chronic Reference Dose (cRfD) at 1.75 milligrams per kilogram of bodyweight (mg/kg bodyweight/day). The EU-set cRfD for glyphosate was recently raised from 0.3 to 0.5 mg/kg/day, 3.5-fold lower than EPA's. A team of scientists has compiled evidence supporting the need for a fivefold reduction in the EU cRfD to 0.1 mg/kg/day [ ], a level 17-times lower than EPA's."
      },
      {
        "@type": "HowToStep",
        "position": 5,
        "name": "Relative toxicity and impacts",
        "text": "Glyphosate is a moderate dose herbicide with relatively low acute and chronic mammalian toxicity, to the extent mammalian risk is accurately reflected in required EPA toxicology studies. After an exhaustive review, however, glyphosate was classified in 2015 as a \"probable human carcinogen\" by the International Agency for Research on Cancer [ ], based on increased prevalence of rare liver and kidney tumors in chronic animal feeding studies, epidemiological studies reporting positive associations with non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and strong mechanistic evidence of genotoxicity and ability to trigger oxidative stress [ ]."
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        "position": 6,
        "name": "Acknowledgements",
        "text": "The author thanks his colleagues at Washington State University's Measure to Manage Program for assistance in developing the datasets and carrying out the analysis. Karie Knoke compiled the glyphosate use dataset and produced the figures. Nicholas Potter helped develop the tables and refine the analysis. Reviewers provided helpful suggestions for improvement. Also, thanks to the U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) for compiling and making available information on pesticide use in the U.S., and to the EPA for its helpful periodic reports on pesticide use."
      }
    ],
    "tool": [
      {
        "@type": "HowToTool",
        "name": "Total volume of glyphosate applied"
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      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "headline": "Trends in glyphosate herbicide use in the United States and globally",
      "datePublished": "2016",
      "author": [
        {
          "@type": "Person",
          "name": "Charles M. Benbrook"
        }
      ],
      "identifier": "10.1186/s12302-016-0070-0"
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